Meditation
Here's something I know very little about.Discuss the relevance of Western Christian Spirituality to the life of men and in the modern world.
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Introduction
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Introduction
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"The curious state of alienation and confusion of man in modern society is perhaps more ‘bearable’ because it is lived in common, with a multitude of distractions and escapes…”[1] The technological advances and sociological changes that have occurred since Thomas Merton’s death in 1968 have made his statement even more true. The mobile telephone and the Internet have, perhaps more than anything else, transformed people’s lives in the Western world over the last ten years. These distractions steal away time that might otherwise be spent in introspection or spiritual contemplation, or perhaps more truthfully, aid us in our escape from facing our own spiritual poverty and the central questions of life.
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Despite the added distractions and busyness of modern life, it is not true to say that people have completely lost interest in spiritual things. Although overall English church attendance went down significantly between 1979 and 1998,[2] interest in other religions went up in the same period. Some of that growth can be explained by immigration, especially in regard to Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus, but it seems that the growth of other groups such as Pagans, and Scientologists reflects a continuing need for spiritual fulfilment in an increasingly secular society.[3] There may be something to be gained if the church were to focus on meeting people’s spiritual needs rather than concentrating on dogmatic orthodoxy.
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The disciplines of Western Christian Spirituality solitude, silence, prayer, meditation, simplicity… are all interlinked. Thus, it is very difficult to completely isolate one. For the sake of this essay, I shall focus on the practice of meditation, which is particularly closely related to prayer and solitude. While prayer is accepted as a central part of Christian life, meditation is often overlooked or viewed as an optional extra. Evidence of this tacit assumption can be seen in the Religious Trends survey, which devotes a page to statistics prayer but no space is given to meditation or any other spiritual discipline.[4] One might infer from this that prayer is the sum of Christian spirituality. Nevertheless, some of the findings regarding prayer may shed some light on the usefulness of meditation. For instance, the survey finds that the biggest barrier to prayer is ‘wandering thoughts’, while other barriers include, ‘not knowing what to say’ and ‘not knowing what to pray for’.[5] The practice of meditation, which serves to concentrate the mind, might alleviate these problems somewhat.
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What is Meditation?
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Meditate… 1 Engage in (esp. religious) contemplation. 2 Plan mentally
1 be lost in thought, brood, cerebrate, cogitate, contemplate, deliberate, mull things over, muse, ponder, pray, reflect, ruminate, think. 2 chew over, consider, contemplate, ponder, turn over.[6]
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“Christian meditation, very simply, is the ability to hear God’s voice and obey his word”.[7] Richard Foster’s definition is easy to understand but a little bold perhaps. I would substitute the word ‘ability’ with ‘attempt’. In meditation, one places oneself in the presence of God in the hope of receiving some sort of revelation. In this meeting with God, one often meets oneself in new ways too. Thomas Merton challengingly defines the purpose of true meditation as to bring “that fundamental awareness of our real condition, against the truth of which our hearts cry out in desperation”.[8] (Nouwen expresses a similar idea in regard to solitude.[9]) Nevertheless, Merton is still able to define meditation as resting in God’s presence.[10]
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Meditation may be practised corporately, as with the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius Loyola, but it is normally a solitary pursuit. Thus, it follows that an element of solitude needs to be found in order to practise meditation.
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When and where?
According to the Religious Trends survey, the second and third biggest barriers to prayer are ‘noise and other distractions’, and ‘no time’.[11] These two barriers are as relevant to meditation as they are to prayer. How can people of the modern world find time for something as unproductive as meditation? And, where can these people go to get away from the busyness of the outside world?
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With regard to time, it seems that if spiritual progress really is important, then we will be able to prioritise and schedule times for meditation.[12] Time with God should take priority over watching television or surfing the Internet. Some may claim that at the end of a busy day they need to be able to relax in front of the television. However, it could be answered that meditation is a form of relaxation once it is learnt, and it would better refresh and prepare one for the challenges ahead. Perhaps, a radical step like selling the television would make it easier.
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In regard to place, it seems best, where possible, to practise meditation within the home. Assuming that one does not have a spare room set aside solely for the purpose of meditation, the next best thing may be to take an upright chair into one’s bedroom and meditate there at times when the rest of the household are taking part in other activities. (It is, obviously, preferable if the rest of the household can agree not to disturb one while meditating.) I also see no reason why one should not meditate in the bath on even on the toilet. In some ways, such a position intensifies one’s sense of nakedness before God. Foster makes some suggestions about finding a place in his chapter on Solitude. Among his more helpful suggestions is, for the more proficient, to “take advantage of the ‘little solitudes’ that fill our day”[13], times when we find ourselves alone in the midst of the day’s busyness. Of course, not all forms of meditation are possible in these snippets of peacefulness. Alternatively, where possible, one may enclose an area in the garage or on the patio for such a purpose.[14] He also suggests ‘a spot in a park’, or ‘a church sanctuary that is kept unlocked’[15] these are good suggestions but both carry the risk of interruption. Moreover, if one adopts the posture recommended by Foster[16] then one would run the risk of drawing attention to oneself in a park, which, to some extent, defeats the object of the exercise. Wherever one may choose to practise meditation, it seems good to make it in a regular spot. This way, that certain place becomes associated with meditation and the practice becomes easier.
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Foster’s suggestion, for those having a new house built, to ‘insist that a little inner sanctuary be put into the plans,’[17] may be helpful for some middle class Americans or very rich European readers but on the whole it serves to alienate the majority of readers who can only dream of such luxury.
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Types of Meditation
-
-
Despite the added distractions and busyness of modern life, it is not true to say that people have completely lost interest in spiritual things. Although overall English church attendance went down significantly between 1979 and 1998,[2] interest in other religions went up in the same period. Some of that growth can be explained by immigration, especially in regard to Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus, but it seems that the growth of other groups such as Pagans, and Scientologists reflects a continuing need for spiritual fulfilment in an increasingly secular society.[3] There may be something to be gained if the church were to focus on meeting people’s spiritual needs rather than concentrating on dogmatic orthodoxy.
-
The disciplines of Western Christian Spirituality solitude, silence, prayer, meditation, simplicity… are all interlinked. Thus, it is very difficult to completely isolate one. For the sake of this essay, I shall focus on the practice of meditation, which is particularly closely related to prayer and solitude. While prayer is accepted as a central part of Christian life, meditation is often overlooked or viewed as an optional extra. Evidence of this tacit assumption can be seen in the Religious Trends survey, which devotes a page to statistics prayer but no space is given to meditation or any other spiritual discipline.[4] One might infer from this that prayer is the sum of Christian spirituality. Nevertheless, some of the findings regarding prayer may shed some light on the usefulness of meditation. For instance, the survey finds that the biggest barrier to prayer is ‘wandering thoughts’, while other barriers include, ‘not knowing what to say’ and ‘not knowing what to pray for’.[5] The practice of meditation, which serves to concentrate the mind, might alleviate these problems somewhat.
-
What is Meditation?
-
Meditate… 1 Engage in (esp. religious) contemplation. 2 Plan mentally
1 be lost in thought, brood, cerebrate, cogitate, contemplate, deliberate, mull things over, muse, ponder, pray, reflect, ruminate, think. 2 chew over, consider, contemplate, ponder, turn over.[6]
-
“Christian meditation, very simply, is the ability to hear God’s voice and obey his word”.[7] Richard Foster’s definition is easy to understand but a little bold perhaps. I would substitute the word ‘ability’ with ‘attempt’. In meditation, one places oneself in the presence of God in the hope of receiving some sort of revelation. In this meeting with God, one often meets oneself in new ways too. Thomas Merton challengingly defines the purpose of true meditation as to bring “that fundamental awareness of our real condition, against the truth of which our hearts cry out in desperation”.[8] (Nouwen expresses a similar idea in regard to solitude.[9]) Nevertheless, Merton is still able to define meditation as resting in God’s presence.[10]
-
Meditation may be practised corporately, as with the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius Loyola, but it is normally a solitary pursuit. Thus, it follows that an element of solitude needs to be found in order to practise meditation.
-
When and where?
According to the Religious Trends survey, the second and third biggest barriers to prayer are ‘noise and other distractions’, and ‘no time’.[11] These two barriers are as relevant to meditation as they are to prayer. How can people of the modern world find time for something as unproductive as meditation? And, where can these people go to get away from the busyness of the outside world?
-
With regard to time, it seems that if spiritual progress really is important, then we will be able to prioritise and schedule times for meditation.[12] Time with God should take priority over watching television or surfing the Internet. Some may claim that at the end of a busy day they need to be able to relax in front of the television. However, it could be answered that meditation is a form of relaxation once it is learnt, and it would better refresh and prepare one for the challenges ahead. Perhaps, a radical step like selling the television would make it easier.
-
In regard to place, it seems best, where possible, to practise meditation within the home. Assuming that one does not have a spare room set aside solely for the purpose of meditation, the next best thing may be to take an upright chair into one’s bedroom and meditate there at times when the rest of the household are taking part in other activities. (It is, obviously, preferable if the rest of the household can agree not to disturb one while meditating.) I also see no reason why one should not meditate in the bath on even on the toilet. In some ways, such a position intensifies one’s sense of nakedness before God. Foster makes some suggestions about finding a place in his chapter on Solitude. Among his more helpful suggestions is, for the more proficient, to “take advantage of the ‘little solitudes’ that fill our day”[13], times when we find ourselves alone in the midst of the day’s busyness. Of course, not all forms of meditation are possible in these snippets of peacefulness. Alternatively, where possible, one may enclose an area in the garage or on the patio for such a purpose.[14] He also suggests ‘a spot in a park’, or ‘a church sanctuary that is kept unlocked’[15] these are good suggestions but both carry the risk of interruption. Moreover, if one adopts the posture recommended by Foster[16] then one would run the risk of drawing attention to oneself in a park, which, to some extent, defeats the object of the exercise. Wherever one may choose to practise meditation, it seems good to make it in a regular spot. This way, that certain place becomes associated with meditation and the practice becomes easier.
-
Foster’s suggestion, for those having a new house built, to ‘insist that a little inner sanctuary be put into the plans,’[17] may be helpful for some middle class Americans or very rich European readers but on the whole it serves to alienate the majority of readers who can only dream of such luxury.
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Types of Meditation
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1. Biblical Meditation
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This book of the law shall not depart out of your mouth; you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to act in accordance with all that is written in it. For then you shall make your way prosperous, and then you shall be successful. (Joshua 1:8)
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Biblical meditation is a method of ‘internalising’ biblical passages, of repeating and memorising scripture. It was the favoured method of the desert fathers;[18] as well as Bonhoeffer: - “we must centre our attention on the Word alone”.[19] Following Loyola, Foster recommends that the Christian should enter in to the text with all their senses.[20] As the reader enters the text, so the Word enters the reader. Biblical meditation is about making the text one’s own.[21] This way, “…just as you do not analyse the words of someone you love, but accept them as they are said to you, accept the Word of scripture and ponder it in your heart”.[22]
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This is a very accessible method of meditation. All Christians are familiar with the text, (if not all of the text) and it gives one something to focus on. However, this method may cause philosophical problems for some Christians. Foster and Bonhoeffer seem to divorce such meditation from exegesis. It seems to me that the exegetically aware are not able to separate critical study and spiritual life. To do so would feel intellectually dishonest. Sandra Schneiders addresses this problem, “theology… is the intellectual articulation of spirituality”.[23] This is true, but surely it is a two-way relationship; just as spirituality shapes theology, so theology shapes spirituality. Schneiders concludes that critical study with special regard to the text as sacred is necessary.[24] This goes some way to solving the problem – things like the ‘I am’ sayings in John’s gospel may be judged as historically questionable but theologically true.
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However, what does the more radical critic, for whom the text in itself is not especially ‘sacred’ while the witness it bears concerning Jesus is sacred, do? Apart from seeing historical problems, such a critic may see ignoble motivations in the biblical redaction.[25] For instance, one may argue that the author of Revelation fantasises about seeing revenge exacted on Rome,[26] or that John demonises ‘the Jews’[27]... Many theologically trained people, although still Christians, find themselves coming to such conclusions after careful and critical study. The relevance of Biblical meditation for such as these is much more tenuous.
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1. Biblical Meditation
-
This book of the law shall not depart out of your mouth; you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to act in accordance with all that is written in it. For then you shall make your way prosperous, and then you shall be successful. (Joshua 1:8)
-
Biblical meditation is a method of ‘internalising’ biblical passages, of repeating and memorising scripture. It was the favoured method of the desert fathers;[18] as well as Bonhoeffer: - “we must centre our attention on the Word alone”.[19] Following Loyola, Foster recommends that the Christian should enter in to the text with all their senses.[20] As the reader enters the text, so the Word enters the reader. Biblical meditation is about making the text one’s own.[21] This way, “…just as you do not analyse the words of someone you love, but accept them as they are said to you, accept the Word of scripture and ponder it in your heart”.[22]
-
This is a very accessible method of meditation. All Christians are familiar with the text, (if not all of the text) and it gives one something to focus on. However, this method may cause philosophical problems for some Christians. Foster and Bonhoeffer seem to divorce such meditation from exegesis. It seems to me that the exegetically aware are not able to separate critical study and spiritual life. To do so would feel intellectually dishonest. Sandra Schneiders addresses this problem, “theology… is the intellectual articulation of spirituality”.[23] This is true, but surely it is a two-way relationship; just as spirituality shapes theology, so theology shapes spirituality. Schneiders concludes that critical study with special regard to the text as sacred is necessary.[24] This goes some way to solving the problem – things like the ‘I am’ sayings in John’s gospel may be judged as historically questionable but theologically true.
-
However, what does the more radical critic, for whom the text in itself is not especially ‘sacred’ while the witness it bears concerning Jesus is sacred, do? Apart from seeing historical problems, such a critic may see ignoble motivations in the biblical redaction.[25] For instance, one may argue that the author of Revelation fantasises about seeing revenge exacted on Rome,[26] or that John demonises ‘the Jews’[27]... Many theologically trained people, although still Christians, find themselves coming to such conclusions after careful and critical study. The relevance of Biblical meditation for such as these is much more tenuous.
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2. Re-Collection
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In this, the subject sits ‘palms down’ and mentally offers to God all his negative emotions, (fear of the dentist, resentment of colleagues…) and then turns the palms over and mentally tells God what he would like to receive without directly asking for it. After this, he sits and waits for any direction that might come.[28] This method could be very useful in the stress filled modern world, I think. It brings the subject to recognise his negative emotions and admit them before God. Thus, it has a purifying effect. It is also very accessible for a beginner; he knows exactly what he is supposed to do. The awkward second stage of ‘listening’ is a little more difficult, ‘how long should I wait?’ However, there should be no pressure for answers and if one feels that the moment has passed, then it is probably time to stop. Perhaps the biggest difficulty is in letting go of negative emotions but this only highlights our need of it. It is also important that any answers that do come should be carefully weighed before acted upon, especially if the action is radical. Although this is a Christian discipline, secular people would be able to see the benefit of it because it aims to make one a better human being.
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2. Re-Collection
-
In this, the subject sits ‘palms down’ and mentally offers to God all his negative emotions, (fear of the dentist, resentment of colleagues…) and then turns the palms over and mentally tells God what he would like to receive without directly asking for it. After this, he sits and waits for any direction that might come.[28] This method could be very useful in the stress filled modern world, I think. It brings the subject to recognise his negative emotions and admit them before God. Thus, it has a purifying effect. It is also very accessible for a beginner; he knows exactly what he is supposed to do. The awkward second stage of ‘listening’ is a little more difficult, ‘how long should I wait?’ However, there should be no pressure for answers and if one feels that the moment has passed, then it is probably time to stop. Perhaps the biggest difficulty is in letting go of negative emotions but this only highlights our need of it. It is also important that any answers that do come should be carefully weighed before acted upon, especially if the action is radical. Although this is a Christian discipline, secular people would be able to see the benefit of it because it aims to make one a better human being.
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3. Others forms of Meditation
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On the glorious splendour of your majesty, and on your wondrous works, I will meditate. (Psalm 145:5)
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Many things can inspire meditation – creation is an obvious one. Another might be God’s character and attributes. It might be that by looking at creation we see analogies of God’s attributes. This may be difficult for many though as it is abstract. By contrast, Ignatius Loyola’s program of letting ‘the reality of Hell enlarge your grasp of the force of evil in any sin’[29] late each day seems a little too real. Meditating on sin and its consequences at midnight is likely to either cause nightmares or prevent sleep altogether. This looks like psychological manipulation by Ignatius and is not to be commended. [Though I'm not sure I'd want to accuse him of that to his face]
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Foster also suggests a form of meditation with the Bible in one hand and a newspaper in the other.[30] The subject here attempts to gain a prophetic perspective on his society. The subject should avoid pitfalls of trying to interpret biblical prophecies. The prophetic perspective should be concerned with what God would have to say about the world today, deduced primarily from the principles upon which Jesus acted and taught. Having done this we may seek guidance on how to be a light in such a world.
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3. Others forms of Meditation
-
On the glorious splendour of your majesty, and on your wondrous works, I will meditate. (Psalm 145:5)
-
Many things can inspire meditation – creation is an obvious one. Another might be God’s character and attributes. It might be that by looking at creation we see analogies of God’s attributes. This may be difficult for many though as it is abstract. By contrast, Ignatius Loyola’s program of letting ‘the reality of Hell enlarge your grasp of the force of evil in any sin’[29] late each day seems a little too real. Meditating on sin and its consequences at midnight is likely to either cause nightmares or prevent sleep altogether. This looks like psychological manipulation by Ignatius and is not to be commended. [Though I'm not sure I'd want to accuse him of that to his face]
-
Foster also suggests a form of meditation with the Bible in one hand and a newspaper in the other.[30] The subject here attempts to gain a prophetic perspective on his society. The subject should avoid pitfalls of trying to interpret biblical prophecies. The prophetic perspective should be concerned with what God would have to say about the world today, deduced primarily from the principles upon which Jesus acted and taught. Having done this we may seek guidance on how to be a light in such a world.
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4. Transcendental Meditation
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The practitioner of TM focuses on an internally heard syllable and enters an altered state of consciousness. This is controversial among some evangelicals; Foster believes it to be unscriptural.[31] Nonetheless, some Christians do practise TM. Furthermore, the Hebrew word hagah, translated ‘meditation’ is similar in meaning to ‘mantra’.[32] Nouwen’s description of the ‘prayer of the heart’ also has some similarities with TM; “the quiet repetition of a single word can help us to descend with the mind into the heart”.[33] How is this relevant to modern society? It seems that if we know Christians who lean towards mysticism we should not condemn them if they wish to practise a Christianised form of TM. Perhaps, if the church were more open towards TM more people with mystical leanings would be attracted to the church.
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Conclusion
The church has, to some degree, rediscovered its spiritual heritage. Yet, it seems that for many Christians, spirituality ends with prayer. If they were coached in the ways of meditation, (and other spiritual disciplines) it might help them to overcome some of the barriers in their prayer-life. The secular world also needs to see that the church has spiritual depth; the secular world has spiritual needs too. Meditation, in all its forms, has relevance to people of the modern world. Different forms of meditation work better for different parts of the Christian community and beyond. So, in my judgment, it is vitally important that the church maintains all of its spiritual disciplines so that many may come to be nourished.
-
4. Transcendental Meditation
-
The practitioner of TM focuses on an internally heard syllable and enters an altered state of consciousness. This is controversial among some evangelicals; Foster believes it to be unscriptural.[31] Nonetheless, some Christians do practise TM. Furthermore, the Hebrew word hagah, translated ‘meditation’ is similar in meaning to ‘mantra’.[32] Nouwen’s description of the ‘prayer of the heart’ also has some similarities with TM; “the quiet repetition of a single word can help us to descend with the mind into the heart”.[33] How is this relevant to modern society? It seems that if we know Christians who lean towards mysticism we should not condemn them if they wish to practise a Christianised form of TM. Perhaps, if the church were more open towards TM more people with mystical leanings would be attracted to the church.
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Conclusion
The church has, to some degree, rediscovered its spiritual heritage. Yet, it seems that for many Christians, spirituality ends with prayer. If they were coached in the ways of meditation, (and other spiritual disciplines) it might help them to overcome some of the barriers in their prayer-life. The secular world also needs to see that the church has spiritual depth; the secular world has spiritual needs too. Meditation, in all its forms, has relevance to people of the modern world. Different forms of meditation work better for different parts of the Christian community and beyond. So, in my judgment, it is vitally important that the church maintains all of its spiritual disciplines so that many may come to be nourished.
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Notes
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[1] Merton p.26
[2] Brierley, p.12.3 table 12.3.1. Table 12.3.2 (same page) shows that all denominations lost numbers between 1979 and 1998; the only exceptions are new denominations and Orthodox. The growth of new denominations is probably explained by the fact that new denominations are constantly being created due to schismatic tendencies among evangelicals. The growth of the Orthodox church is probably best explained by immigration.
[3] See tables in Brierley pp. 10.2-10.10, in particular table 10.6.1 table 10.8.2, and table 10.9.1 which give the wider view.
[4] Brierley, p.5.7
[5] Brierley p.5.7 Table 5.7.3
[6] Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus, J. A. Elliot ed. OUP, Oxford. (2001) p.465
[7] Foster, p.21
[8] Merton, p.129
[9] Nouwen, pp.16-21
[10] Merton, p.32
[11] Brierley, p.5.7 table 5.7.3
[12] Foster, p.31 and Nouwen, p.22 also point out the need to set aside a particular time.
[13] Foster, p.131
[14] Ibid
[15] Foster, p.132
[16] Foster, p.32-3
[17] Foster, p.131
[18] Cf. Merton, pp.21-2; Freeman, p.648
[19] Bonhoeffer, p.64
[20] Foster, p.34
[21] Merton, p.22; Foster, p. 33
[22] Bonhoeffer cited in Foster p.33
[23] Schneiders, p. 135
[24] Schneiders, p.142
[25] Schneiders points out that the likes of Bultmann, Barth, Lagrange, and Raymond Brown are ‘passionately concerned with spirituality’. p.141
[26] D H Lawrence called Revelation ‘The Judas of the New Testament’. Cited in Sweet, J., Revelation, SCM, London (1979) p.48
[27] That is not to accuse the Johannine author of anti-Semitism but of having an unchristian attitude towards the Jewish authorities.
[28] Foster, p.35
[29] Tetlow, p.69
[30] Foster, p.36
[31] Foster, p.38
[32] Freeman, p.649
[33] Nouwen, p.70
[2] Brierley, p.12.3 table 12.3.1. Table 12.3.2 (same page) shows that all denominations lost numbers between 1979 and 1998; the only exceptions are new denominations and Orthodox. The growth of new denominations is probably explained by the fact that new denominations are constantly being created due to schismatic tendencies among evangelicals. The growth of the Orthodox church is probably best explained by immigration.
[3] See tables in Brierley pp. 10.2-10.10, in particular table 10.6.1 table 10.8.2, and table 10.9.1 which give the wider view.
[4] Brierley, p.5.7
[5] Brierley p.5.7 Table 5.7.3
[6] Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus, J. A. Elliot ed. OUP, Oxford. (2001) p.465
[7] Foster, p.21
[8] Merton, p.129
[9] Nouwen, pp.16-21
[10] Merton, p.32
[11] Brierley, p.5.7 table 5.7.3
[12] Foster, p.31 and Nouwen, p.22 also point out the need to set aside a particular time.
[13] Foster, p.131
[14] Ibid
[15] Foster, p.132
[16] Foster, p.32-3
[17] Foster, p.131
[18] Cf. Merton, pp.21-2; Freeman, p.648
[19] Bonhoeffer, p.64
[20] Foster, p.34
[21] Merton, p.22; Foster, p. 33
[22] Bonhoeffer cited in Foster p.33
[23] Schneiders, p. 135
[24] Schneiders, p.142
[25] Schneiders points out that the likes of Bultmann, Barth, Lagrange, and Raymond Brown are ‘passionately concerned with spirituality’. p.141
[26] D H Lawrence called Revelation ‘The Judas of the New Testament’. Cited in Sweet, J., Revelation, SCM, London (1979) p.48
[27] That is not to accuse the Johannine author of anti-Semitism but of having an unchristian attitude towards the Jewish authorities.
[28] Foster, p.35
[29] Tetlow, p.69
[30] Foster, p.36
[31] Foster, p.38
[32] Freeman, p.649
[33] Nouwen, p.70
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Bibliography
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Brierley, P. W., Religious Trends, No. 2 – 2000/2001, Christian Research, London. (1999)
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Bonhoeffer, D., Life Together, SCM Press, London. (English Trans. by J. W. Doberstein 1954)
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Foster, R.,J., Celebration of Discipline, Study Guide Edition, Hodder & Stoughton, London. (1999)
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Freeman, L., “Meditation”, in The New Dictionary of Catholic Spirituality, (M. Downey, ed.) The Liturgical Press, Collegeville, Minnesota. (1993)
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Kroll, U., “Meditation, Transcendental”, in A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, (G. S. Wakefield, ed.) SCM, London. (1983)
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Leclercq, J., “Meditation, Mental Prayer” in A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, (G. S. Wakefield, ed.) SCM, London. (1983)
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Merchant, M., “Meditation, Poetry of”, in A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, (G. S. Wakefield, ed.) SCM, London. (1983)
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Merton, T., Contemplative Prayer, Darton, Longman and Todd, Lodon. (1973)
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Nouwen, H. J. M., The Way of the Heart, Darton, Longman and Todd, London. (1981)
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Schneiders, S. M., “Biblical Spirituality”, in Interpretation, Vol. 56, No. 2, April 2002, (W. P. Brown, et al, eds.) Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, Virginia.
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Tetlow, J. A., Ignatius Loyola: Spiritual Exercises, Crossroad, New York. (1992)
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Bonhoeffer, D., Life Together, SCM Press, London. (English Trans. by J. W. Doberstein 1954)
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Foster, R.,J., Celebration of Discipline, Study Guide Edition, Hodder & Stoughton, London. (1999)
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Freeman, L., “Meditation”, in The New Dictionary of Catholic Spirituality, (M. Downey, ed.) The Liturgical Press, Collegeville, Minnesota. (1993)
-
Kroll, U., “Meditation, Transcendental”, in A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, (G. S. Wakefield, ed.) SCM, London. (1983)
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Leclercq, J., “Meditation, Mental Prayer” in A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, (G. S. Wakefield, ed.) SCM, London. (1983)
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Merchant, M., “Meditation, Poetry of”, in A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, (G. S. Wakefield, ed.) SCM, London. (1983)
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Merton, T., Contemplative Prayer, Darton, Longman and Todd, Lodon. (1973)
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Nouwen, H. J. M., The Way of the Heart, Darton, Longman and Todd, London. (1981)
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Schneiders, S. M., “Biblical Spirituality”, in Interpretation, Vol. 56, No. 2, April 2002, (W. P. Brown, et al, eds.) Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, Virginia.
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Tetlow, J. A., Ignatius Loyola: Spiritual Exercises, Crossroad, New York. (1992)
posted by Rowland @ Monday, July 10, 2006
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